Volume 25 of the Israel Oriental Studies Annual includes nine articles. The Ancient Near Eastern section consists of three articles. The first article is a study of the way that scholarly knowledge was memorized and internalized by the professional classes of First Millennium Mesopotamia (Gabbay). The second article discusses rhotacism in Luwian (Simon). The third article is an edition of an inscribed metal-bowl of King Iddin-Sin of Simurrum, followed by a commentary (Wasserman). The Semitic section includes six articles that touch upon languages attested, although not solely, in Africa. The issues discussed are shared etymologies between ancient Egyptian and Arabic (Borg and Sheyhatovitch), a new Digital Humanities project of Phoenician and Punic insciptions (Cerqueglini, Silber-Varod and Klein), the syntax of Hebrew spoken by the Algerian Jewish community of Wad-Souf (Gębski), the nomina agentis in Tigrinya (Gutgarts), the oral and written Beta Israel tradition (Rom-Shiloni).

In this paper, we present a comprehensive techno-typological study of the lithic assemblages from two newly excavated sites in the Arava Valley (Israel), dated to ca. 24,000 years ago. The two assemblages feature comparable bladelet reduction sequences oriented to produce a variety of obliquely truncated backed bladelets made on straight, narrow blanks, with some typological variability detectable between them.

The Idan occupations are contemporaneous with the Masraqan and Nebekian industries during the early part of the Early Epipaleolithic (EEP) that, following Garrard and Byrd (2013), we refer to here as Initial Epipaleolithic (IEP).

We suggest that the Idan localities represent an IEP facies, stylistically more reminiscent of the Nebekian assemblages in the Transjordian highlands, but differing technologically in the absence of the microburin technique.

We highlight the different developmental trajectories of backed microliths in different regions within the Southern Levant, illustrating the complex cultural dynamics at the beginning of the Epipaleolithic.

We propose that these developmental trajectories are influenced by different population densities and adaptation strategies of forager groups in diverse environmental settings within the Levant.

The medieval wall and trench system of China and Mongolia covers ∼4000 km and consists of a series of rammed-earth walls, ditches, and hundreds of associated structures. This was not a unified system but rather different sections that were built by different political entities and perhaps for different purposes between ca. 1000 to 1220 CE. Among those lines, the earliest is the northernmost section dated to the period of the Liao empire (916–1125 CE). It is located deep in the sparsely populated steppe of today's northeastern Mongolia (Dornod Province) as well as in parts of China and Russia. Recent excavations at Site 23 along the northern line revealed a rich and well-preserved faunal assemblage from a midden pit dated towards the end of the Liao empire (ca. 1050 CE). Common Mongolian domesticates sheep, goat, horse, cow, and dog were identified, as well as wild species: gazelle, rabbit, mustelids, large raptors, and fish, including Amur catfish. Based on bone fusion, size, and teeth eruption, many of the sheep/goat bones and dogs belong to very young animals under six months. Historical texts, such as the Liaoshi (Liao history) and Qidan guozhi (Records of the Kitan empire), were the only source of knowledge available regarding human-animal relations, as very little is known of subsistence practices during the Liao period from faunal analysis in itself. The historical record documents aspects of Liao-era animal husbandry, hunting, fishing, and imperial diplomatic/tributary animal exchange between the Liao governors and local tribes. Through integration of textual evidence and the excavated faunal material, we can interpret the subsistence activities of a distinct Liao frontier garrison for the first time, going beyond the often-generic descriptions of the historical record which pertain more to the elite than the common people. This analysis allows us a glimpse behind the texts at the varied and flexible economic practices taking place deep in the Mongolian steppe.

Reconciling the ever-increasing volume of new archaeological data with the abundant corpus of legacy data is fundamental to making robust archaeological interpretations. Yet, combining new and existing results is hampered by inconsistent standards in the recording and illustration of archaeological features and artefacts. Attempts at collating data from images in existing publications first involve scouring the substantial body of existing literature, followed by extracting images that require onerous manual preprocessing steps, like re-scaling, re-orienting, and re-formatting. While the sample sizes of such manual analyses are curtailed by these problems, recent developments in AI and big data methods are poised to accelerate and automate large syntheses of existing data.

This paper introduces an AI-assisted workflow capable of creating uniform archaeological datasets from heterogeneous published resources. The associated software (AutArch) takes large and unsorted PDF files as input, and uses neural networks to conduct image processing, object detection, and classification. Objects commonly found in archaeological catalogues – like graves, skeletons, ceramics, ornaments, stone tools, and maps – are reliably detected. Accompanying elements of the illustrations, like North arrows and scales, are automatically used for orientation and scaling. Outlines are then extracted with contour detection, allowing whole-outline morphometrics. Detected objects, contours, and other automatically retrieved data can be manually validated and adjusted via AutArch's graphical user interface.

While we test this workflow on third millennium BCE Central European graves and Final Neolithic/Early Bronze Age arrowheads from Northwest Europe, this method can be applied to the vast number of artefacts and archaeological features for which shape, size, and orientation holds technological, functional, cultural, and/or temporal significance. This AI-assisted workflow has the potential to speed-up, automate, and standardise data collection throughout the discipline, allowing more objective interpretations and freeing sample sizes from budget and time constraints.

Observations about handaxe techno-morphology, like their symmetry, refinement, and fine edges have long been used to reconstruct the evolution of hominin cognition, skills, and technological decision making. However, these interpretations about the cognitive and technical abilities of Acheulean hominins often rely on the most ‘beautiful’ or supposedly ‘archetypical’ looking handaxes. But how often do these finely made handaxes actually occur in assemblages and how can we identify handaxes that were more skillfully made than others? Instead of seeking to estimate the skill level of individual past knappers, a trait that is oftentimes obscured in the archaeological record, we approach the question of knapping skill from the other direction. We instead ask how much skill was required to manufacture a handaxe? We explore, not the skill level of a handaxe’s maker, but how skillfully an individual handaxe was made. We put forth a suite of novel 3D methods of handaxe analysis for calculating their 3D edge sinuosity and 3D asymmetry. Using these methods, we quantify traits that are difficult to achieve during handaxe-making, providing an estimate of the requisite amount of ability, experience, attention, and effort demanded by their manufacture. Among our large sample of handaxes from the later Acheulean of the southern Levant, we find that blank size and tool-/site-use best explain the presence of more skillfully-made handaxes. Handaxes made on larger original blanks appear to afford more volume with which to enact longer and more skillfully demanding reduction sequences. Moreover, handaxes occurring at more recurrently occupied sites demanded less skill investment and appear geared towards the more expedient fulfilment of quotidian tasks. In the later Acheulean of the southern Levant there appears to be a great diversity in how skillfully handaxes were made, likely reflecting a diversity in the goals of handaxe making.

Amud and Kebara caves (northern Israel) are two broadly contemporaneous Middle Paleolithic sites dated to ca. 70-50 Ka BP, both located in the Mediterranean realm of the southern Levant. Neanderthal occupations at these sites are represented by considerable amounts of lithic artifacts, combustion features and abundant faunal material as well as human remains. As similar mammalian taxonomic distributions were observed in these two Neanderthal cave sites, we explore the complexity and diversity of their animal resources processing techniques by comparing cut-marks characteristics and patterns. A total of 344 animal bone fragments bearing cut-marks were selected from specific stratigraphic contexts from both sites, and studied using macroscopic and microscopic techniques (i.e., Focus Variation microscopy) to quantify, characterize, and measure the cut-marks left on the bones.The observations were compared across the stratigraphic units and between the sites. Despite comparable taxonomic distributions, there are notable differences in the density and layout of cut-marks between the two caves. The micro-morphometric characteristics of these marks also highlight intra-and inter-site differences and similarities. This evidence might suggest distinctive butchering strategies between the Neanderthal populations in Amud and Kebara caves despite comparable occupation intensities, similar lithic technologies, and access to similar food resources. Such discrepancies could possibly reflect inter-group cultural differences related to carcass processing preferences, organization of tasks within the group, or socially transmitted traditions.

In autumn 2021, researchers of the Israeli Antiquities Authority conducted a photographic survey to document all the inscriptions and graffiti on the walls of the Cenacle – the traditional site of the Last Supper taken by Jesus and the Apostles before the Passion. The combination of multi-spectral photography and Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI) enabled the rediscovery of several epigraphic elements that were too faded or worn to be seen with an untrained eye. Initially 30 written inscriptions and nine images, including five coats of arms, were identified. Having deciphered and read these, we attempted to link them with concrete historical figures. For the sake of comparison, we also considered several further inscriptions and heraldic elements from other parts of the Holy Compound on Mount Sion. With some notable exceptions, the great majority of the graffiti dates to the period when the Cenacle was the focal point of a Franciscan monastery which served as the original seat of the Custodia Terrae Sanctae. Among the most important and moving discoveries were: an inscription that might allude to the Christmas pilgrimage of King Hetoum II of Cilicia; an autograph of the 15th century German pilgrim author Johannes Poloner; and the coat of arms of the Swiss national hero, Adrian I von Bubenberg. Although not all inscriptions could be related to a concrete person, when considered as a whole, the graffiti assemblage provides valuable evidence of the origin of the pilgrims who visited Mount Sion and the Monastery. These included Armenians, Czechs, Italians, and Serbs. The largest single group, comprising around half of all visitors, were Arabic-speaking Eastern Christians. The Cenacle’s inscriptions are an invaluable reminder of the diversity of the Christian pilgrimage to late medieval Jerusalem.

The study of retouching, reshaping, and rejuvenation in lithic technology has traditionally focused on finished tools, overlooking the by-products of these processes, particularly microdebitage. This has led to an incomplete understanding of the dynamic behaviours associated with tool maintenance and a lack of crucial information about prehistoric technological strategies. Here we address this knowledge gap. Specifically, we introduce a classification system for lithic by-products resulting from retouching, reshaping, and rejuvenation techniques, categorising them into five modules (M0 through M4) based on lithic technological analysis. This methodology integrates the chaîne opératoire approach to analyse flakes without size thresholds. To demonstrate our approach, we apply it, coupled with raw material sourcing, to lithic assemblages from two Middle Palaeolithic sites in Armenia, Kalavan 2 and Ararat-1 Cave. This enables a precise reconstruction of tool use-life and, in turn, the mobility strategies of Pleistocene hunter-gatherers. Our findings demonstrate that microdebitage (by-products) can contribute to a holistic view of decision-making, revealing patterns in tool maintenance and raw material provisioning. The module system provides insights into the production of ‘ghost tools,’ which are not present in the archaeological record, as well as curation behaviours and economic decisions regarding raw materials that were previously difficult to discern. By shifting the focus from finished artefacts to by-products, this framework enhances our ability to interpret lithic assemblages and understand the adaptive strategies of prehistoric hunter-gatherers.

The Gobi Wall is a 321 km-long structure made of earth, stone, and wood, located in the Gobi highland desert of Mongolia. It is the least understood section of the medieval wall system that extends from China into Mongolia. This study aims to determine its builders, purpose, and chronology. Additionally, we seek to better understand the ecological implications of constructing such an extensive system of walls, trenches, garrisons, and fortresses in the remote and harsh environment of the Gobi Desert. Our field expedition combined remote sensing, pedestrian surveys, and targeted excavations at key sites. The results indicate that the garrison walls and main long wall were primarily constructed using rammed earth, with wood and stone reinforcements. Excavations of garrisons uncovered evidence of long-term occupation, including artifacts spanning from 2nd c. BCE to 19th c. CE. According to our findings, the main construction and usage phase of the wall and its associated structures occurred throughout the Xi Xia dynasty (1038–1227 CE), a period characterized by advanced frontier defense systems and significant geopolitical shifts. This study challenges the perception of such structures as being purely defensive, revealing the Gobi Wall’s multifunctional role as an imperial tool for demarcating boundaries, managing populations and resources, and consolidating territorial control. Furthermore, our spatial and ecological analysis demonstrates that the distribution of local resources, such as water and wood, was critical in determining the route of the wall and the placement of associated garrisons and forts. Other geographic factors, including the location of mountain passes and the spread of sand dunes, were strategically utilized to enhance the effectiveness of the wall system. The results of this study reshape our understanding of medieval Inner Asian imperial infrastructure and its lasting impact on geopolitical landscapes. By integrating historical and archeological evidence with geographical analysis of the locations of garrisons and fortifications, we underscore the Xi Xia kingdom’s strategic emphasis on regulating trade, securing transportation routes, and monitoring frontier movement.

The distribution of personal names provides unique, yet often overlooked, insight into modern and historical societies. This study employs diversity statistics—commonly used in ecology—to analyze onomastic data from Iron Age II archaeological excavations in the Southern Levant (950–586 BCE). Our findings reveal higher onomastic diversity in the Kingdom of Israel compared to Judah, suggesting a more cosmopolitan society. We also observe a decrease in name diversity in Judah over time, potentially reflecting sociopolitical changes. Center/periphery analysis shows contrasting patterns in Israel and Judah. These results provide insights into social dynamics, cultural interactions, and identity formation in these ancient societies. Our methodology, validated using supplementary archaeological data, as well as modern datasets, offers a robust framework for applying diversity statistics across various modern and historical contexts.